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| '''[[Geodesy]]'''
  
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| [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]]
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| [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]]<ref name = "Ahmed">Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref><ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref>
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<ref name = "Ahmed">Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref><ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref>
 
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| '''[[Geology]]'''
  
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|[[Avicenna]] <ref>{{citation|title=The History of Clinical Endocrinology: A Comprehensive Account of Endocrinology from Earliest Times to the Present Day|first=Victor Cornelius|last=Medvei|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=1993|isbn=1850704279|page=46}}</ref>
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|[[Avicenna]] <ref>{{citation|title=The History of Clinical Endocrinology: A Comprehensive Account of Endocrinology from Earliest Times to the Present Day|first=Victor Cornelius|last=Medvei|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=1993|isbn=1850704279|page=46}}</ref>
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|For formulating [[law of superposition]] and developing [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]] concept in ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027).
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|For formulating [[law of superposition]] and developing [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]] concept in ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027).
 
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| '''[[Limnology]]''' (modern)
  
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| [[G. Evelyn Hutchinson]]
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| [[G. Evelyn Hutchinson]]<ref> [http://lakes.chebucto.org/PEOPLE/hutchins.html G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)]</ref>
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<ref> [http://lakes.chebucto.org/PEOPLE/hutchins.html G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)]</ref>
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| '''[[Meteorology]]'''
  
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| [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]]
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| [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]]<ref name = "Maury">Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the [[United States Naval Academy]]: ''Pathfinder of the Seas'' (book).</ref>
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<ref name = "Maury">Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the [[United States Naval Academy]]: ''Pathfinder of the Seas'' (book).</ref>
 
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Revision as of 22:06, 29 May 2014

Those known as the father, mother, or considered the founder of a scientific field are the scientists who have made important contributions to that field. In some fields several people are considered the founders, while in others the title of being the "father" is debatable.

Natural sciences

Biology

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Bacteriology Robert Koch, Ferdinand Cohn,
Louis Pasteur[1] (founders) 		For their studies and scientific findings on bacteria and algae
Biology[2] Aristotle[3]
Botany Al-Dinawari[4] For his Book of Plants, which described at least 637 plants, and discussed plant evolution and the phases of plant growth
Entomology William Kirby
Entomology in North America Thomas Say[5]
Evolution and natural selection Charles Darwin[6][7][8] Publication: On the Origin of Species
Genetics Gregor Mendel[9] For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance
Ichthyology Peter Artedi[10]
Lichenology Erik Acharius[11]
Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[12] The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria
Molecular biology Linus Pauling[13]
Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran[14] Founded the Molecular Biophysics Unit (1970)
Neuroscience Santiago Ramón y Cajal[15]
(founder) 		For his formation of neuron doctrine
Taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus
[16](founder) 		Naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world
Toxicology Paracelsus[17]
Virology Martinus Beijerinck[18]
(founder) 		His studies of agricultural microbiology and industrial microbiology yielded fundamental discoveries in the field of biology

Chemistry

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Atomic theory (modern) Father Roger Boscovich[19] For the first coherent description of atomic theory, well over a century before modern atomic theory emerged.
Chemical thermodynamics (modern) Gilbert Lewis, Willard Gibbs Merle Randall, and Edward Guggenheim (founders)[20] Books: Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933); because of the major contributions of these two books in unifying the applications of thermodynamics to chemistry
Chemistry Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)[21][22][23][24] Islamic alchemist who introduced the experimental method in alchemy (d. 815)
Nuclear chemistry Otto Hahn[25] Book: Applied Radiochemistry (1936)
First person to split an atomic nucleus (1938)
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of nuclear fission (1944)
Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev[26] Arranged sixty-six elements (known at the time) in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869)
Physical chemistry Hermann von Helmholtz,

Willard Gibbs(founders)[27]

Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry through their publications off, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances(1876), and Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange(1882)

Earth sciences

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Geodesy Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī

[28][29]

Geology Avicenna [30] For formulating law of superposition and developing uniformitarianism concept in The Book of Healing (1027).
Limnology (modern) G. Evelyn Hutchinson

[31]

Meteorology Matthew Fontaine Maury

[32]

Naval oceanography (modern) Matthew Fontaine Maury

[32]

Medicine and physiology

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
American psychiatry Benjamin Rush[33]
Audiology Raymond Carhart[34][35]
Circulatory physiology Ibn al-Nafis[36] Discovered the pulmonary circulation and the capillary and coronary circulations in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon (1242)
Cognitive therapy Aaron T. Beck[37]
Emergency medicine Frank Pantridge[38]
Experimental psychology Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[39] Introduced experimentation in psychology with his Book of Optics (1021)
Experimental surgery Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar)[40] Introduced experimental method into surgery in his Al-Taisir
Fitness Jack LaLanne[41]
Gynaecology J. Marion Sims[42] [43]
Human anatomy (modern) Vesalius[44]
 Book: De humani corporis fabrica (1543)
Medical genetics Victor McKusick[45] Created Mendelian Inheritance in Man
Medicine (early) Imhotep[46][47][48]
Charaka[49] 		Wrote the first medical treatise, the Edwin Smith papyrus.

Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine.
Medicine (modern) Avicenna[50] Introduced experimental medicine and systematic experimentation and quantification in physiology and discovered the contagious nature of infectious diseases in The Canon of Medicine (1025)
Modern dentistry Pierre Fauchard[51]
Modern nutrition Justus von Liebig[52]
Modern psychology Wilhelm Wundt[53] Founded the first laboratory for psychological research.
Nursing (modern) Florence Nightingale[54]
Pediatrics Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes)[55] Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field
Physiology Claude Bernard[56] Publication: An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865)
Physical culture Bernarr Macfadden[57]
Plastic surgery Sushruta[58][59] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud[60]
Psychophysics Gustav Fechner[61] Founded the discipline of psychophysics in his Elements of Psychophysics (1860)
Space medicine Hubertus Strughold[62]
Surgery (early) Sushruta[58][59] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita, the first surgical treatise
Surgery (modern) Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis)[63]
Ambroise Paré[64] 		Publication: Kitab al-Tasrif (1000).
Leader in surgical techniques, especially the treatment of wounds.

Physics and Astronomy

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Acoustics Ernst Chladni[65] For important research in vibrating plates
Aerodynamics Nikolai Zhukovsky
George Cayley[66]
 Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built
Classical mechanics Isaac Newton (founder)[67] Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
Electricity William Gilbert[68]
Michael Faradayreference required
Benjamin Franklinreference required
Thomas Edison[69]
Nikola Teslareference required 		Book: De Magnete (1600)
Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)
Proposed a kite experiment to prove that lightning is electricity (1750)
Invented many electrical devices, such as the carbon microphone
Invented alternating current and many other electrical devices
Energetics Willard Gibbs[70] Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)
Experimental physics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[71][72] For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics (1021)
Indian astronomy Aryabhata[73] Publication: Aryabhatiya (499)
Modern astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus[74] Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)
Modern physics Galileo Galilei[75] His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope
Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford[76] Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)
Nuclear science Marie Curie
Pierre Curie[77]
Optics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[78] Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).
Quantum mechanics Max Planck (founder)[79] Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form
Relativity Albert Einstein(founder)[80] Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)
Spaceflight (Rocketry) Robert Hutchings Goddard
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Hermann Oberth 		Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket.
Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot (founder)[81] Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)

Formal sciences

Mathematics

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Algebra
See also History of Algebra 		Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)

[82][83]

Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline.
Algorithm Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)

[83]

Explained the algorism, an early algorithm for performing arithmetic with Indian-Arabic numerals
Analytic geometry Omar Khayyám[84] Analytic geometry began with Khayyám, a poet-mathematician in 11th century Persia, who applied it to his general geometric solution of cubic equations.
Applied mechanics (modern) Stephen Timoshenko

reference required

Reputed to be the father of modern applied mechanics. Wrote many of the seminal works in this area, many of which are still used today.
Calculus Isaac Newton

[85]
Gottfried Leibniz

See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.
Classical analysis Madhava of Sangamagrama

[86]

Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions
Computer Science Alan Turing Provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine.
Descriptive geometry Gaspard Monge

[87]
(founder)

Developed a graphical protocol which creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane
Geometry Euclid

[88]

Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.
Non-Euclidean geometry János Bolyai,
Nikolai Lobachevsky[89](founders) 		Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true
Probability Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, Christiaan Huygens[90] (founders) Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book
Projective Geometry Gérard Desargues

[91](founder)

By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away
Tensor calculus Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro

[92]
(founder)

Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus
Trigonometry Aryabhatta Constructed the first trigonometric table of sines.
Vector algebra,
Vector calculus 		Willard Gibbs

[27]
Oliver Heaviside[93]
(founders)

For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

Systems theory

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Chaos theory Edward Lorenz [94] Lorenz attractor
Cybernetics Norbert Wiener [95] Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948.
Dynamic programming Richard E. Bellman
Fuzzy logic Lotfi Asker Zadeh
Information theory Claude Shannon[96] Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)
Optimal control Arthur E. Bryson[97] Book: Applied Optimal Control[98]
Robust control George Zamesreference required Small gain theorem and H infinity control.
Stability theory Alexander Lyapunovreference required Lyapunov function

Social sciences

See also: List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field
Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Anthropology Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī

[28][99]

Demography Ibn Khaldun

[100]

Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)
Egyptology Father Athanasius Kircher

[101] Jean-François Champollionreference required

First to identify the phoenetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta stone's discovery.
Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone.
Indology Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī

[99]

Wrote the Indica and Critical study of what India says
Political science (modern) Niccolò Machiavelli

[102]

Discussion of and concern with how people actually behave, as opposed to how people should behave.
Sociology Ibn Khaldun

[100][103]

Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena).

Other

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Experimental science Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)

[104]

For developing a systematic experimental approach to science in his Book of Optics (1021)
Modern science Galileo Galilei

[105][106]

For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy
Scientific method Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)

[107]

Pioneered earliest scientific method in his Book of Optics (1021).

See also

  • Founders of statistics

References

  1. ↑ Drews G (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
  2. ↑ Suggested 1802 by German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and introduced as a scientific term that year in France by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
  3. ↑ Strong, W.F.; Cook, John A. (July 2007), "Reviving the Dead Greek Guys", Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN: 1550-7521, http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/issues/jul07/strong.php 
  4. ↑ Fahd, Toufic, "Botany and agriculture", pp. 815 , in Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107 
  5. ↑ Schuh, Randall T. (1995). True Bugs of the World: Classification and Natural History. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2066-0. , p. 11
  6. ↑ Darwin, Charles (1842 (published 1909)), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID = F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  7. ↑ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  8. ↑ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  9. ↑ The Father of Genetics
  10. ↑ Jordan, David Starr (1905). A Guide to the Study of Fishes. Henry Holt and Company. , online at [1], p.390: "Far greater than either of these... was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."
  11. ↑ "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology," Department of Cryptogamic Botany, Swedish Museum of Natural History. Link. 17 December 1999.
  12. ↑ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
  13. ↑ Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers - Special Collections - Oregon State University
  14. ↑ Prathap, Gangan (March 2004), "Indian science slows down: The decline of open-ended research", Current Science 86 (6): 768-769 [768] 
  15. ↑ Ramón y Cajal, Santiago [1897] (1999). Advice for a Young Investigator, translated by Neely Swanson and Larry W. Swanson, Cambridge: MIT Press.
  16. ↑ Hovey, Edmund Otis. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
  17. ↑ Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 (1): 2 - Toxicological Sciences
  18. ↑ Chung, King-Thom and Ferris, Deam Hunter (1996). Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851–1931): pioneer of general microbiology. AMS News 62, 539-543.
  19. ↑ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 107. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  20. ↑ Ott, Bevan, J.; Boerio-Goates, Juliana (2001). Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-12-530990-2. 
  21. ↑ Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64: 246–258 [247] 
  22. ↑ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
  23. ↑ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
  24. ↑ Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. The Independent.
  25. ↑ O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11-15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938.
  26. ↑ Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
  29. ↑ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
  30. ↑ Medvei, Victor Cornelius (1993), The History of Clinical Endocrinology: A Comprehensive Account of Endocrinology from Earliest Times to the Present Day, Taylor and Francis, p. 46, ISBN 1850704279 
  31. ↑ G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the United States Naval Academy: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
  33. ↑ Diseases of the Mind: Highlights of American Psychiatry through 1900 - Benjamin Rush
  34. ↑ Hall, James W. (1999). Handbook of Otoacoustic Emissions. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-873-9. , p. 2: the Father of Audiology himself, Raymond Carhart at Northwestern University..."
  35. ↑ Hall, James W.; H. Gustav Mueller (1998). Audiologists Desk Reference: Audiolologic Management, Rehabilitation and Terminology. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-711-2. , p. 912: "Carhart notch: A decrease in the bone-conduction hearing at the 2000 Hz region of patients with otosclerosis first reported by and therefore named after the father of audiology, Raymond Carhart."
  36. ↑ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
  37. ↑ Durand, V. Mark, Jim; David H Barlow (2005). Essentials of Abnormal Psychology. Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-495-03128-3. , p. 235: "In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."
  38. ↑ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 12/29/2004.
  39. ↑ Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2).
  40. ↑ Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", Saudi Medical Journal 27 (11): 1631–1641.
  41. ↑ Father of fitness, Jack La Lanne, turns 90, MSNBC, September 24, 2004. "He continues to live by his motto, 'I can't die, it would ruin my image!'"
  42. ↑ Log In Problems
  43. ↑ History of Women and Science, Health, and Technology
  44. ↑ Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
  45. ↑ Geneticists Mourn Loss of the ‘Father of Genetic Medicine’
  46. ↑ Mostafa Shehata, MD (2004), "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration", J Med Ethics 12, p. 171-176 [176].
  47. ↑ = DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2007/05/10/scegypt10.xml How Imhotep gave us medicine, The Daily Telegraph, 10/05/2007.
  48. ↑ Jimmy Dunn, Imhotep, Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser.[2]
  49. ↑ Nirupama Laroia, M.D. and Deeksha Sharma (June 2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus", Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 1 (2), p. 94-98.
  50. ↑ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
  51. ↑ de Vaux, Jean Claude. The Pierre Fauchard Academy (English). Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
  52. ↑ Black, Rebecca. The Support of Breastfeeding: Module 1. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0208-0. , p.9: "Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of wheat flour, cow's milk, malt flour and bicarbonate of potash."
  53. ↑ Wilhelm Wundt in Psychology Biographies at ALLPSYCH Online
  54. ↑ [3]
  55. ↑ David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
  56. ↑ Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
  57. ↑ Oursler, Fulton; Will Oursler (1949). Father Flanagan of Boys Town. Doubleday. , p.270: "It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
  60. ↑ Sigmund Freud [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
  61. ↑ Aaen-Stockdale, Craig (2008), "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics", Perception 37 (4): 636–638 
  62. ↑ Lee, Martin A.; Bruce Shlain (1986). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3062-3. , p.6: "After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'". See also Harry Armstrong.
  63. ↑ Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
  64. ↑ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
  65. ↑ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
  66. ↑ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
  67. ↑ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
  68. ↑ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
  69. ↑ Kurland, Gerald. 91972). Thomas Edison, father of electricity and master inventor of our modern age, Charlotteville, N.Y.: SamHar Press.
  70. ↑ Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica, 1911
  71. ↑ Thiele, Rüdiger (2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 15: 329–331 
  72. ↑ Thiele, Rüdiger (August 2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928–2005", Historia Mathematica 32 (3): 271-274 
  73. ↑ Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1987), "The “day of Brahman” in the work of Āryabhata", Archive for History of Exact Sciences 38 (1): 13-22}}
  74. ↑ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
  75. ↑ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0595368778.
  76. ↑ Pasachoff, Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN 0-7660-2441-5. 
  77. ↑ Resources
  78. ↑ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
  79. ↑ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
  80. ↑ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6. 
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