Editing History of technology

[[Image:Wheel Iran.jpg|thumb|The [[wheel]] was invented circa 4000 BC, and has become one of the world's most famous, and most useful technologies.  This wheel is on display in The National Museum of [[Iran]], in [[Tehran]].]]

The '''history of technology''' is the history of the [[invention]] of [[tool]]s and techniques, and is similar in many ways to the [[Human history|history of humanity]].  Background knowledge has enabled people to create new things, and conversely, many scientific endeavors have become possible through [[technology|technologies]] which assist humans to travel to places we could not otherwise go, and probe the nature of the universe in more detail than our natural senses allow.

''Technological artifacts'' are products of an [[Economic system|economy]], a force for economic growth, and a large part of everyday life.  Technological innovations affect, and are affected by, a society's cultural traditions.  They also are a means to develop and project military power.
{{histOfTech}}

==Measuring technological progress==
Many [[sociology|sociologists]] and  [[anthropology|anthropologists]] have created [[social theory|social theories]] dealing with [[social evolution|social]] and [[cultural evolution]]. Some, like [[Lewis H. Morgan]], [[Leslie White]], and [[Gerhard Lenski]], declare [[technological progress]] to be the primary factor driving the development of human civilization. Morgan's concept of three major stages of social evolution ([[savagery]], [[barbarism]], and [[civilization]]) can be divided by technological milestones, like [[fire]], the [[bow (weapon)|bow]], and [[pottery]] in the savage era, [[domestication of animals]], [[agriculture]], and [[metalworking]] in the barbarian era and the [[alphabet]] and [[writing]] in the civilization era. 

Instead of specific inventions, White decided that the measure by which to judge the evolution of culture was [[energy]]. For White "the primary function of culture" is to "harness and control energy." White differentiates between five stages of human development: In the first, people use energy of their own muscles. In the second, they use energy of [[domestication of animals|domesticated animals]]. In the third, they use the energy of plants ([[agricultural revolution]]). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness [[nuclear energy]]. White introduced a formula P=E*T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilizing the energy. In his own words, "culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased, or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work is increased". Russian astronomer, [[Nikolai Kardashev]], extrapolated his theory creating the [[Kardashev scale]], which categorizes the energy use of advanced civilizations.

Lenski takes a more modern approach and focuses on [[information]]. The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of natural environment) a given society has, the more advanced it is. He identifies four stages of human development, based on advances in the [[history of communication]]. In the first stage, information is passed by [[gene]]s. In the second, when humans gain [[sentience]], they can [[learn]] and pass information through by experience. In the third, the humans start using [[signs]] and develop [[logic]]. In the fourth, they can create [[symbol]]s, develop [[language]] and [[writing]]. Advancements in the technology of communication translates into advancements in the [[economic system]] and [[political system]], [[distribution of wealth]], [[social inequality]] and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy:
* hunters and gatherers,
* simple agricultural,
* advanced agricultural,
* industrial,
* special (such as fishing societies).

Finally, from the late 1970s sociologists and anthropologists like [[Alvin Toffler]] (author of ''[[Future Shock]]''), [[Daniel Bell]] and [[John Naisbitt]] have approached the theories of [[post-industrial society|post-industrial societies]], arguing that the current era of [[industrial society]] is coming to an end, and [[Service (economics)|service]]s and information are becoming more important than [[industry]] and [[good (economics)|good]]s. Some of the more extreme visions of the post-industrial society, especially in [[fiction]], are strikingly similar to the visions of near and post-[[Technological singularity|Singularity]] societies.

==By period and geography==

===Early technology===
[[Image:Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg|thumb|[[Agriculture]] preceded [[writing]] in the history of technology.]]
{{Div col}}
* [[Olduvai]] stone technology ([[Olduwan]]) 2.5 million years ago (scrapers; to butcher dead animals)
* [[Acheulean]] stone technology 1.6 million years ago (hand axe)
* [[Fire]] creation and manipulation, used since the [[Paleolithic]], possibly by [[Homo erectus]] as early as [[1 E13 s|1.5 Million years ago]]
* ([[Homo sapiens sapiens]] - modern human anatomy arises, around 200,000 years ago.)
* [[Clothing]] possibly 100,000 years ago.
* [[Stone tool]]s, used by [[Homo floresiensis]], possibly [[1 E12 s|100,000 years ago]].
* [[Venus of Dolni Vestonice|Ceramics]] ca. 25,000 BC
* [[Domestication]] of Animals, ca. 15,000 BC
* [[Bow (weapon)|Bow]], [[Sling (weapon)|sling]] ca. 9th millennium BC
* [[Microlith]]s ca. 9th millennium BC
* [[Copper]] ca. 8000 BC
* [[Agriculture]] and [[Plough]] ca. 8000 BC
* [[Wheel]] ca. 4000 BC
* [[Gnomon]] ca. 4000 BC
* [[Writing system]]s ca. 3500 BC
* [[Bronze]] ca. 3300 BC
* [[Salt]]
* [[Chariot]] ca. 2000 BC
* [[Iron]] ca. 1500 BC
* [[Sundial]] ca. 800 BC
* [[Glass]] ca. 500 BC
* [[Catapult]] ca. 400 BC
* [[Horseshoe]] ca. 300 BC
* [[Stirrup]] first few centuries AD
{{Div col end}}

====Stone Age====
[[Image:National park stone tools.jpg|thumb|200px|A variety of [[stone tool]]s]]
During the '''[[Stone Age]],''' all humans had a lifestyle which involved limited use of tools and few, if any, permanent settlements. The first major technologies, then, were tied to survival, hunting, and food preparation in this environment. Fire, stone tools and weapons, and clothing were technological developments of major importance during this period. Stone Age cultures developed [[Prehistoric music|music]], and engaged in organized [[Prehistoric warfare|warfare]]. A subset of Stone Age humans developed ocean-worthy [[outrigger]] ship technology, leading to an eastward [[History of Papua New Guinea|migration]] across the [[Malay archipelago]], across the Indian ocean to [[Madagascar]] and also across the Pacific Ocean, which required knowledge of the ocean currents, weather patterns, sailing, [[celestial navigation]], and star maps. The early Stone Age is described as [[Epipaleolithic]] or [[Mesolithic]]. The former is generally used to describe the early Stone Age in areas with limited glacial impact. The later Stone Age, during which the rudiments of agricultural technology were developed, is called the [[Neolithic]] period. During this period, polished [[stone tool]]s were made from a variety of hard rocks such as [[flint]], [[jade]], [[jadeite]] and [[greenstone]], largely by working exposures as quarries, but later the valuable rocks were pursued by tunnelling underground, the first steps in mining technology. The polished axes were used for forest clearance and the establishment of crop farming, and were so effective as to remain in use when bronze and iron appeared.

Although Paleolithic cultures left no written records, the shift from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a range of archaeological evidence. Such evidence includes ancient tools,<ref>http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0114_040114_siberianhumans.html</ref> [[cave painting]]s, and other [[prehistoric art]], such as the [[Venus of Willendorf]]. Human remains also provide direct evidence, both through the examination of bones, and the study of [[mummy|mummies]]. Though concrete evidence is limited, scientists and historians have been able to form significant inferences about the lifestyle and culture of various prehistoric peoples, and the role technology played in their lives.

====Copper and Bronze Age====
[[Image:Sword bronze age (2nd version).jpg|thumb|200px|A late [[Bronze Age sword]] or dagger blade.]]
The Stone Age developed into the '''[[Bronze Age]]''' after the [[Neolithic Revolution]]. The Neolithic Revolution involved radical changes in agricultural technology which included [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], animal [[domestication]], and the adoption of permanent settlements. These combined factors made possible the development of metal [[smelting]], with [[copper]] and later [[bronze]], an alloy of [[tin]] and copper, being the materials of choice, although polished stone tools continued to be used for a considerable time owing to their abundance compared with the less common metals (especially tin).

This technological trend apparently began in the [[Fertile Crescent]], and spread outward over time. It should be noted that these developments were not, and still are not, universal. The [[Three-age system]] does not accurately describe the technology history of groups outside of [[Eurasia]], and does not apply at all in the case of some isolated populations, such as the [[Spinifex People]], the [[Sentinelese]], and various Amazonian tribes, which still make use of Stone Age technology, and have not developed agricultural or metal technology.

====Iron Age====
[[Image:Axe of iron from Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden.jpg|thumb|100px|An [[axe]]head made of iron, dating from Swedish [[Iron Age]].]]
The '''[[Iron Age]]''' involved the adoption of iron [[bloomery|smelting]] technology. It generally replaced bronze, and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents. In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language, though again this was not universally the case. It was not possible to mass manufacture steel because high furnace temperatures were needed, but [[steel]] could be produced by [[forging]] bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a controllable way. Iron ores were much more widespread than either copper or tin. In Europe, large [[hill fort]]s were built either as a refuge in time of war, or sometimes as permanent settlements. In some cases, existing forts from the Bronze Age were expanded and enlarged. The pace of land clearance using the more effective iron axes increased, providing more farmland to support the growing population.

By 1000 BC – 500 BC, the [[Germanic tribes]] had a [[Bronze Age]] civilization, while the [[Celt]]s were in the [[Iron Age]] by the time of the [[Hallstatt culture]]. Their cultures collided with the military and agricultural practices of the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], leading those Europeans who were conquered to adopt Roman technological advances.

====Africa====
{{main|Science and technology in Africa}}

Science and technology in Africa has a history stretching to the beginning of the human species, stretching back to the first evidence of [[Stone Age|tool use]] by hominid ancestors in the [[Hominid evolution|areas of Africa]] where humans are believed to have evolved. Africa saw the advent of some the earliest [[ironworking]] technology in the [[Aïr Mountains]] region of what is today [[Niger]] and the erection of some of the world's oldest monuments, pyramids and towers in [[Egypt]], [[Nubia]], and [[History of North Africa|North Africa]]. In Nubia and ancient Kush, glazed quartzite and building in brick was developed to a greater extent than in Egypt. Parts of the East African [[Swahili Coast]] saw the creation of the world's oldest [[carbon steel]] creation with high-temperature [[blast furnace]]s created by the [[Haya people]] of Tanzania.

===Ancient civilizations===
{{main|Ancient technology}}

It was the growth of the ancient civilizations which produced the greatest advances in technology and engineering, advances which stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.

====Mesopotamia====
The peoples of [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Sumerians]], [[Assyrians]], and [[Babylonians]]), in present-day [[Iraq]], have been credited with the invention of the [[wheel]]. They lived in cities from {{circa}} 4000BC,<ref>JN Postgate, ''Early Mesopotamia'', Routledge(1992)</ref> and developed a sophisticated architecture in mud-brick and stone,<ref>See entries under [[Nineveh]] and [[Babylon]]</ref> including the use of the true arch. The walls of Babylon were so massive they were quoted as a [[Wonder of the World]]. They developed extensive water systems; canals for transport and irrigation in the alluvial south, and catchment systems stretching for tens of kilometres in the hilly north. Their palaces had sophisticated drainage systems.<ref>S Dalley, ''The Mystery of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon'', Oxford University Press(2013)</ref>

[[Writing]] was invented in Mesopotamia, using [[cuneiform]] script. Many records on clay tablets and stone inscriptions have survived. These civilisations were early adopters of bronze technologies which they used for tools, weapons and monumental statuary. By 1200 BC, they could cast objects 5m long in a single piece. The Assyrian King [[Sennacherib]] (704-681BC) claims to have invented automatic sluices and to have been the first to use [[water screw]]s, of up to 30 tons weight, which were cast using two-part clay moulds rather than by the 'lost wax' process.<ref> Dalley (2013)</ref> The Jerwan Aqueduct (c688BC) is made with stone arches and lined with waterproof concrete.<ref>T Jacobsen and S Lloyd, ''Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan'', Chicago University Press,(1935)</ref>

The Babylonians were meticulous astronomers (see [[Babylonian astronomy]]), keeping a series of records spanning 800 years. They were able to plot the motions of the planets and to predict eclipses<ref>CBF Walker, ''Astronomy before the telescope,'' British Museum Press, (1996)</ref>

====Egypt====
{{Main|Egyptian technology}}

The [[Egyptians]] invented and used many machines, such as the [[inclined plane|ramp]] to aid construction processes. They were among the first to extract [[gold]] by large-scale mining using [[fire-setting]], and the first recognisable [[map]], the [[Turin papyrus]] shows the plan of one such mine in [[Nubia]].

Egyptian [[paper]], made from [[papyrus]], and [[pottery]] were mass-produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. The [[wheel]], however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the [[chariot]]. They developed Mediterranean [[maritime history|maritime]] technology including ships and lighthouses.

The earliest [[watermill]]s, using [[hydropower]]ed wheels, were invented in Egypt some time around the 6th to 3rd centuries BC. Later in Roman Egypt, the Hellenized Egyptian engineer [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron of Alexandria]] performed an early experiment with [[wind power]] (see [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron of Alexandria]]'s windwheel) and even an early steam-powered device (the [[aeolipile]]).

For later technologies in [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], [[Ægyptus|Roman Egypt]], and [[History of Arab Egypt|Arab Egypt]], see [[Ancient Greek technology]], [[Roman technology]] and [[Inventions in medieval Islam]] respectively.

====India====
{{main|History of Indian Science and Technology|List of Indian inventions}}

The [[Indus Valley Civilization]], situated in a resource-rich area, is notable for its early application of city planning and sanitation technologies.

Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology—a panel found at [[Mohenjodaro]], depicts a sailing craft. Ship construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on Shipbuilding. The Yukti Kalpa Taru, compiled by Bhoja Narapati is concerned with shipbuilding. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of Sanskrit [[Manuscripts]]').

The [[Takshashila]] University was an important seat of learning in the ancient world. It was the center of education for scholars from all over Asia. Many [[Greeks|Greek]], Persian and [[China|Chinese]] students studied here under great scholars including [[Kautilya]], Panini, Jivaka, and Vishnu Sharma.

Indian construction and architecture, called '[[Vaastu Shastra]]', suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation. Ancient Indian culture was also pioneering in its use of vegetable dyes, cultivating plants including [[indigo]] and [[cinnabar]]. Many of the dyes were used in art and sculpture. The use of [[perfume]]s demonstrates some knowledge of [[chemistry]], particularly [[distillation]] and purification processes.

====China====
{{main|History of science and technology in China|List of Chinese inventions}}

[[List of Chinese inventions|The Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments]]. Major technological contributions from China include early [[Seismology|seismological]] detectors, [[matches]], [[paper]], [[cast iron]], the iron [[plough]], the multi-tube [[seed drill]], the [[suspension bridge]], the [[parachute]], [[natural gas]] as fuel, the [[magnetic compass]], the [[raised-relief map]], the [[propeller]], the [[crossbow]], the [[South Pointing Chariot]], and [[gun powder]].

====Persian Empire====
{{main|Science and technology in Iran}}

The [[Qanat]], a water management system used for irrigation, originated in [[Iran]] before the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid period]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. The oldest and largest known qanat is in the Iranian city of [[Gonabad]] which, after 2,700&nbsp;years, still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000&nbsp;people.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Ward English  | first = Paul  | title = The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World | journal = Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society | volume =  112| issue =  3 | pages = pp 170–181 | publisher = [[JSTOR]]
  | date = June 21, 1968 | jstor=986162}}</ref> The [[Persian Empire]] was also responsible for developing the [[Royal Road]], the first ancient highway.

Persian philosophers and inventors may have created the first [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]], sometimes known as the [[Baghdad Battery]], in the [[Parthia]]n or [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] eras. Some have suggested that the batteries may have been used medicinally. Other scientists believe the batteries were used for electroplating—transferring a thin layer of metal to another metal surface—a technique still used today and the focus of a common classroom experiment.<ref name=BBC>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2804257.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Riddle of 'Baghdad's batteries']</ref>

In the 7th&nbsp;century AD, Persians in [[Afghanistan]] developed the first practical [[windmill]]s. For later medieval technologies developed in [[Islamization of Iran|Islamic Persia]], see [[Inventions in medieval Islam]].

====Hellenistic <span style="font-size:13px;">Mediterranean</span>====
[[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] engineers around the Eastern Mediterranean developed several technologies and improved upon pre-existing technologies. The [[Hellenistic period]] saw a rise in technological inventiveness, fostered by a climate of openness to new idea, royal patronage the blossom of a mechanistic philosophy and the establishment of the [[Library of Alexandria]] in [[Egypt]] and its close association with the adjacent [[museion]]. In contrast to the typically anonymous inventor of earlier ages, ingenuine minds now remained known by name to posterity, such as the Greek engineers [[Archimedes]] and [[Philo of Byzantium]], and the Egyptian engineers [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron]] and [[Ctesibius]].

Ancient agriculture, as in any period prior to the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence, and its irrigation methods were fairly advanced by the application of several previously unknown water-lifting devices, including possibly the vertical [[water-wheel]], or compartmented wheel, as well as the [[Archimedes screw]], the bucket-chain and pot-garland, and quite possibly the [[chain pump]].<ref name="Lewis 2000 356f.">{{Citation
 | last = Oleson
 | first = John Peter
 | year = 2000
 | contribution = Water-Lifting
 | editor-last = Wikander
 | editor-first = Örjan
 | title = Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
 | series = Technology and Change in History
 | publication-place = Leiden
 | volume = 2
 | pages = 217–302
 | isbn = 90-04-11123-9}}</ref> Other developments for the operation of mechanical devices included the right-angled [[gear]] and the [[screw]].

====Roman Empire====
The [[Roman Empire|Romans]] developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created [[Roman law|laws]] providing for individual ownership, advanced stone masonry technology, advanced [[Roman road|road-building]], military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the [[reaper|Gallic reaper]] that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. Roman engineers also built monumental arches, [[List of Roman amphitheatres|amphitheatres]], [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]], [[Thermae|public baths]], [[Roman bridge|true arch bridges]], [[harbour]]s, [[reservoir]]s and [[dam]]s, vaults, and domes. Notable Roman developments include the [[Codex]], [[glass blowing]], and [[concrete]]. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the [[concrete]] which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day.

====Americas====
The engineering skills of the [[Inca]] and the [[Mayans]] were great, even by today's standards. An example is the use of pieces weighing in upwards of one ton in their stonework placed together so that not even a blade can fit in-between the cracks. The villages used irrigation canals and [[drainage]] systems, making agriculture very efficient. While some claim that the Incas were the first inventors of [[hydroponics]], their agricultural technology was still soil based, if advanced. Though the [[Maya civilization]] had no metallurgy or wheel technology, they developed complex writing and astrological systems, and created sculptural works in stone and flint. Like the Inca, the Maya also had command of fairly advanced agricultural and construction technology. Throughout this time period much of this construction, was made only by women, as men of the Maya civilization believed that females were responsible for the creation of new things. The main contribution of the [[Aztec]] rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities. In [[Mesoamerica]], without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed for travel on foot, just like the Inca and Mayan civilizations.

===Medieval and Modern technologies===
====Islamic Agricultural Revolution====
{{main|Islamic Agricultural Revolution|Inventions in medieval Islam|Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world}}

From the 8th century, the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] witnessed a fundamental transformation in [[agriculture]] known as the "[[Islamic Agricultural Revolution]]", "Arab [[Agricultural Revolution]]", or "Islamic [[Green Revolution]]".<ref>Thomas F. Glick (1977), "Noria Pots in Spain", ''Technology and Culture'' '''18''' (4), p. 644-650.</ref><ref name=Burke-174/> Due to the [[global economy]] established by [[Geography and cartography in medieval Islam|Muslim explorers]] and [[Islamic economics in the world|Islamic traders]] across the [[Old World]] during the "[[Islamic Golden Age#Age of discovery|Afro-Asiatic age of discovery]]" or "Pax Islamica", this enabled the [[diffusion]] of many [[Crop (agriculture)|crops]], plants and [[farming]] techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world, distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.<ref name=Watson/> The diffusion of numerous crops during this period, along with an increased [[mechanization]] of agriculture, led to major changes in [[economy]], [[population distribution]], [[vegetation]] cover,<ref>Andrew M. Watson (1983), ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0-521-24711-X.</ref> agricultural production and [[income]], population levels, [[Urbanization|urban growth]], the distribution of the [[Labour (economics)|labour]] force, linked [[industries]], [[cooking]] and diet, [[clothing]], and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.<ref name=Watson>Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''34''' (1), p. 8-35.</ref>

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative [[Industry|industrial]] uses of [[hydropower]], the early industrial uses of [[tidal power]], [[wind power]], and [[petroleum]], and large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'' in Arabic).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.</ref> The industrial uses of [[watermill]]s were in widespread use since the 8th century. A variety of industrial mills were developed in the Islamic world, including [[fulling]] mills, [[gristmill]]s, [[huller]]s, [[sawmill]]s, shipmills, [[stamp mill]]s, [[steel mill]]s, [[Sugar refinery|sugar mills]], and [[windmill]]s. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from [[al-Andalus]] and [[North Africa]] to the Middle East and [[Central Asia]].<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 [10].</ref> Muslim engineers also developed [[crankshaft]]s and [[water turbine]]s.<ref name=Hill2>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, p. 64-69. ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref> A number of inventions were produced by Muslim scientists and engineers during this time, including inventors such as [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]], the [[Banu Musa]] brothers, [[Al-Jazari]], and [[Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf|Taqi al-Din]].<ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', 11 March 2006.</ref><ref>{{citation|journal=[[Journal of Semitic Studies]]|volume=XXVl|issue=i|date=Autumn 1981|title=A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?|first=C. E.|last=Bosworth}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =  "Origins of the Fountain Pen " | publisher = Muslimheritage.com | url = http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=365 | dateformat = mdy| accessdate = September 18 2007 }}</ref>

A particularly important contribution from the Islamic world was the '[[water management technological complex]]' which was central to the "Islamic Green Revolution" and,<ref name=Burke-174>{{citation|author=Edmund Burke|title=Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity|journal=[[Journal of World History]]|volume=20|issue=2|date=June 2009|year=2009|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0045|pages=165–186 [174]}}</ref> by extension, a precondition for the emergence of modern technology.<ref>{{citation|author=Edmund Burke|title=Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity|journal=[[Journal of World History]]|volume=20|issue=2|date=June 2009|year=2009|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0045|pages=165–186 [168]}}</ref> The various components of this 'toolkit' were developed in different parts of the [[Afro-Eurasia]]n landmass, both within and beyond the Islamic world. However, it was in the medieval Islamic lands where the technological complex was assembled and standardized, and subsequently diffused to the rest of the Old World.<ref name=Burke-173>{{citation|author=Edmund Burke|title=Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity|journal=[[Journal of World History]]|volume=20|issue=2|date=June 2009|year=2009|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0045|pages=165–186 [168 & 173]}}</ref> Under the rule of a single Islamic [[Caliphate]], different regional hydraulic technologies were assembled into "an identifiable [[water management]] technological complex that was to have a global impact." The various components of this complex included [[canal]]s, [[dam]]s, the ''[[qanat]]'' system from Persia, regional water-lifting devices such as the ''[[noria]], [[shaduf]]'' and [[screwpump]] from [[Egypt]], and the [[windmill]] from Islamic [[Afghanistan]].<ref name=Burke-173>{{citation|author=Edmund Burke|title=Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity|journal=[[Journal of World History]]|volume=20|issue=2|date=June 2009|year=2009|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0045|pages=165–186 [173]}}</ref> Other original Islamic developments included the ''[[Sakia|saqiya]]'' with a [[flywheel]] effect from Islamic Spain,<ref name=Flywheel>Ahmad Y Hassan, [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%204.htm Flywheel Effect for a ''Saqiya''].</ref> the [[Reciprocating motion|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[pump]]<ref name=Hill2>Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, pp. 64–9. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref><ref name=Suction-Pump>{{cite web|author=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]|title=The Origin of the Suction Pump: Al-Jazari 1206 A.D.|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%202.htm|accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref><ref name=Hill-1996>Donald Routledge Hill (1996), ''A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times'', [[Routledge]], pp. 143 & 150-2</ref> and [[crankshaft]]-[[connecting rod]] mechanism from [[Iraq]],<ref name=Ganchy>{{citation|title=Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology|last=Sally Ganchy|first=Sarah Gancher|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|year=2009|isbn=1435850661|page=41}}</ref><ref name=Crank>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%203.htm The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine]</ref> the [[gear]]ed and [[hydropower]]ed [[Water supply network|water supply system]] from [[Syria]],<ref name=Turner>Howard R. Turner (1997), ''Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction'', p. 181, [[University of Texas Press]], ISBN 0-292-78149-0</ref> and the [[distilled water]] and [[water purification]] methods of [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Islamic chemists]].<ref name=Rafael>George Rafael, [http://archive.salon.com/books/feature/2002/01/08/alphabet/index.html A is for Arabs], ''[[Salon.com]]'', January 8, 2002</ref><ref>Levey, M. (1973), ‘ Early Arabic Pharmacology’,  E. J. Brill; Leiden</ref>

====Medieval Europe====
{{main|Medieval technology}}

European technology in the [[Middle Ages]] may be best described as a symbiosis of ''traditio et innovatio''. While medieval technology has been long depicted as a step backwards in the evolution of Western technology, sometimes willfully so by modern authors intent on denouncing the church as antagonistic to scientific progress (see e.g. [[Myth of the Flat Earth]]), a generation of medievalists around the American historian of science [[Lynn White]] stressed from the 1940s onwards the innovative character of many medieval techniques. Medieval technologies included, for example, [[mechanical clock]]s, [[spectacles]], and vertical [[windmill]]s. Medieval ingenuity was also displayed in the invention or adoption of seemingly inconspicuous items, like the [[watermark]] or the [[push button|functional button]]. In navigation, the foundation to the subsequent [[age of exploration]] was laid by the introduction or adoption of pintle-and-gudgeon [[rudders]], [[lateen sail]]s, the [[compass#Dry compass|dry compass]], the horseshoe, and the [[astrolabe]].

Significant advances were also made in military technology with the development or adoption of [[plate armour]], steel [[crossbow]]s, [[trebuchet|counterweight trebuchets]] and [[cannon]]. Perhaps best known are the Middle Ages for their architectural heritage: While the [[rib vault]] and [[arch|pointed arch]] gave rise to the high rising [[Gothic architecture|Gothic style]], the ubiquitous medieval fortifications gave the era the almost proverbial title of the 'age of castles'.

====Renaissance Europe====
{{main|Renaissance technology}}
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Image:Filippo Brunelleschi, cutaway of the Dome of Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore).JPG|Dome of [[Florence Cathedral]]
Image:Design for a Flying Machine.jpg|Design for a flying machine (c.1488) by [[da Vinci]]
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The era is marked by advancements like the [[printing press]], [[Perspective (graphical)|linear perceptivity]], [[patent law]], [[Santa Maria del Fiore|double shell domes]] or [[Bastion fortress]]es. Note books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as [[Taccola]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]] give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied. Architects and engineers were inspired by the structures of [[Ancient Rome]], and men like [[Brunelleschi]] created the large dome of [[Florence Cathedral]] as a result. He was awarded one of the first [[patent]]s ever issued in order to protect an ingenious [[crane (machine)|crane]] he designed to raise the large masonry stones to the top of the structure. Military technology developed rapidly with the widespread use of the [[cross-bow]] and ever more powerful [[artillery]], as the city-states of Italy were usually in conflict with one another. Powerful families like the [[Medici]] were strong patrons of the arts and sciences. [[History of science in the Renaissance|Renaissance science]] spawned the [[Scientific Revolution]]; science and technology began a cycle of mutual advancement.

====Age of Exploration====
{{main|Age of Exploration}}
The sailing ship (Nau or [[Carrack]]) enabled the [[Age of Exploration]] with the [[European colonization of the Americas]], epitomized by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]]'s ''[[The New Atlantis]]''. Pioneers like [[Vasco de Gama]], [[Pedro Álvares Cabral|Cabral]], [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] and [[Christopher Columbus]] explored the world in search of new trade routes for their goods and contacts with Africa, India and China which shortened the journey compared with traditional routes overland. They also re-discovered the [[Americas]] while doing so. They produced new maps and charts which enabled following mariners to explore further with greater confidence. Navigation was generally difficult however owing to the problem of longitude and the absence of accurate [[chronometer]]s. European powers rediscovered the idea of the [[civil code]], lost since the time of the Ancient Greeks.

===Industrial Revolution===
{{main|Industrial Revolution}}
{|align=right
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Image:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|A [[Watt steam engine]]
Image:Iron Bridge.JPG|The Iron Bridge
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The British [[Industrial Revolution]] is characterized by developments in the areas of [[textile]] [[manufacturing]], [[mining]], [[metallurgy]] and [[transport]] driven by the development of the [[steam engine]]. Above all else, the revolution was driven by cheap energy in the form of [[coal]], produced in ever-increasing amounts from the abundant resources of [[Great Britain|Britain]]. Coal converted to coke gave the [[blast furnace]] and [[cast iron]] in much larger amounts than before, and a range of structures could be created, such as [[The Iron Bridge]]. Cheap coal meant that industry was no longer constrained by water resources driving the mills, although it continued as a valuable source of power. The steam engine helped drain the mines, so more coal reserves could be accessed, and the output of coal increased. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible, and a transport revolution followed.

===19th century===
[[Image:Stephenson's Rocket.jpg|thumb|250px|The preserved ''Rocket'']]
The 19th century saw astonishing developments in transportation, construction, and communication technologies originating in Europe, especially in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. The [[Steam Engine]] which had existed since the early 18th century, was practically applied to both [[steamboat]] and [[railway]] transportation. The first purpose built railway line opened between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830, the [[Rocket locomotive]] of [[Robert Stephenson]] being one of the first working locomotives used on the line. [[Telegraphy]] also developed into a practical technology in the 19th century to help run the railways safely.

Other technologies were explored for the first time, including the [[Incandescent light bulb]]. The [[Portsmouth Block Mills]] was where manufacture of ships' pulley blocks by all-metal machines first took place and instigated the age of [[mass production]]. [[Machine tools]] used by engineers to manufacture other machines began in the first decade of the century, notably by [[Richard Roberts (engineer)|Richard Roberts]] and [[Joseph Whitworth]]. [[Steamship]]s were eventually completely iron-clad, and played a role in the opening of Japan and China to trade with the West. Mechanical computing was envisioned by [[Charles Babbage]] but did not come to fruition. The [[Second Industrial Revolution]] at the end of the 19th century saw rapid development of chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel technologies connected with highly structured technology research.

===20th century===
[[Image:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Apollo 11|Landing on the Moon]]]]
20th Century technology developed rapidly. Communication technology, transportation technology, broad teaching and implementation of [[scientific method]], and increased research spending all contributed to the advancement of modern science and technology. Due to the scientific gains directly tied to military research and development, technologies including electronic [[computing]] might have developed as rapidly as they did in part due to war. [[Radio]], [[radar]], and early [[History of sound recording|sound recording]] were key technologies which paved the way for the [[telephone]], [[fax]] machine, and [[magnetic storage]] of data. Energy and engine technology improvements were also vast, including [[nuclear power]], developed after the [[Manhattan project]]. Transport by [[rocket]]ry: most work occurred in the U.S. (Goddard), Russia (Tsiolkovsky) and Germany (Oberth). Making use of computers and advanced research labs, modern scientists have recombinant [[DNA]].

The [[National Academy of Engineering]], by expert vote, established the following ranking of the most important technological developments of the 20th century [http://www.greatachievements.org/]:

{{Div col}}
# Electrification
# Automobile
# Airplane
# Water supply and Distribution
# Electronics
# Radio and Television
# Mechanised agriculture
# Computers
# Telephone
# Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
# Highways
# Spacecraft
# Internet
# Imaging
# Household appliances
# Health Technologies
# Petroleum and Petrochemical Technologies
# Laser and Fiber Optics
# Nuclear technologies
# Materials science
{{Div col end}}

===21st century===
[[Image:NASA Mars Rover.jpg|thumb|The Mars Exploration Rovers have provided huge amounts of information by functioning well beyond NASA's original lifespan estimates.]]
{{main|2000s in science and technology}}

In the 21st century, technology is being developed even more rapidly, especially in electronics and [[biotechnology]]. [[Broadband Internet access]] became commonplace in developed countries, as did connecting home computers with music libraries and mobile phones.

Research is ongoing into [[quantum computers]], [[nanotechnology]], [[bioengineering]], [[nuclear fusion]] (see [[ITER]] and [[DEMO]]), [[Materials science|advanced materials]] (e.g., enhanced armor), the [[scramjet]] (along with [[railgun]]s and high-energy beams for military uses), [[superconductivity]], the [[memristor]], and green technologies such as [[alternative fuel]]s (e.g., [[fuel cells]], plugin hybrid cars) and more efficient [[LEDs]] and [[solar cells]].

The understanding of [[particle physics]] is also expected to expand through particle accelerator projects, such as the [[Large Hadron Collider]] – the largest science project in the world <ref>[http://www.discoverychannel.ca/reports/rw/9414/Colossal-construction-The-worlds-nine-largest-science-projects.aspx DiscoveryChannel.ca – Colossal construction: The world's nine largest science projects]</ref> and neutrino detectors such as the [[ANTARES]]. [[Theoretical physics]] currently investigates [[quantum gravity]] proposals such as [[M-theory]], [[superstring theory]], and [[loop quantum gravity]].

Spacecraft designs are also being developed, i.a. under the [[Project Constellation]] (see [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] and [[Ares V]]). The [[James Webb Space Telescope]] will try to identify early galaxies as well as the exact location of the Solar System within our galaxy, using the [[infrared]] spectrum. The finished [[International Space Station]] will provide an intermediate platform for space missions and zero gravity experiments. Despite challenges and criticism, [[NASA]] and [[ESA]] plan a [[manned mission to Mars]] in the 2030s.

==By type of technology==

===History of biotechnology===
{{Main|History of biotechnology}}

To be incorporated into main article:
{{Div col}}
* [[Timeline of agriculture and food technology]]
* [[Hunter-gatherer]]
* [[Agriculture]]
* [[Food science]]
* [[Genetically modified food]]
* [[History of agricultural science]]
* [[History of gardening]]
* [[Biotechnology]] (timeline, etc.)
* [[History of sushi]]
* [[History of tea in China]]
{{Div col end}}

===History of civil engineering===
{{Main|History of civil engineering|History of construction}}

To be incorporated:
* [[Civil engineering]]
* [[Architecture]] and building construction
* [[Bridge]]s, [[harbor]]s, [[tunnel]]s, [[dam]]s
* [[Surveying]], instruments and [[map]]s, [[cartography]], urban engineering, water supply and [[sanitary sewer|sewerage]]

===History of communication===
{{Main|History of communication}}

To be incorporated:
{{Div col}}
* [[Communication]]s
* [[Writing system]]s
* [[Telecommunications]]
* [[History of mobile phones]]
* [[History of animation]]
* [[History of broadcasting]]
* [[History of radar]]
* [[History of radio]]
* [[Printing]]
* [[Film|Cinema]]
* [[Radio]]
* [[Television]]
* [[Internet]]
{{Div col end}}

===History of computing===
{{main|History of computer hardware}}
{{Div col}}
* [[History of computer hardware|History of computing hardware before 1960]]
* [[History of computing hardware (1960s–present)]]
* [[History of computer hardware in Soviet Bloc countries]]
* [[History of computer science]]
* [[History of operating systems]]
* [[History of software engineering]]
* [[History of programming languages]]
* [[History of artificial intelligence]]
* [[History of the graphical user interface]]
* [[History of the Internet]]
* [[History of the World Wide Web]]
* [[History of computer and video games]]
{{Div col end}}
<!-- see [[Template:History of computing]] for list of main articles in the history of computing -->

===History of consumer technology===
{{Main|History of consumer technology}}

{{Div col}}
* [[Timeline of lighting technology]]
* [[History of textiles and clothing]]
* [[History of materials science]]
* [[Family and consumer science]]
* [[History of knitting]]
* [[History of lensmaking]]
* [[History of the chair]]
* [[History of the umbrella]]
* [[Manufacturing]]
{{Div col end}}

===History of electrical engineering===
{{Main|Electrical Engineering#History}}

* [[History of street lighting in the United States]]

===History of energy technology===
{{Main|History of energy}}

{{Div col}}
* [[Energy]] (History, Use by humans, See also)
* [[History of coal mining]]
* [[History of perpetual motion machines]]
* [[History of petroleum]]
* [[History of the oil shale industry]]
* [[History of wind power]]
* [[Hydropower]]
* [[Timeline of steam power]]
* [[Timeline of alcohol fuel]]
* [[Timeline of hydrogen technologies]]
* [[Timeline of nuclear fusion]]
* [[Working animal]]
{{Div col end}}

===History of materials science===
{{Main|History of materials science}}

* [[Timeline of materials technology]]
* [[Metallurgy]]
* [[Material]]s and processing

===History of measurement===
{{Main|History of measurement}}

* [[History of time in the United States]]
* [[Timeline of time measurement technology]]

===History of medicine===
{{Main|History of medicine}}

===History of military technology===
{{main|History of warfare}}

** [[Military history#Technological evolution]]
** [[:Category:Military history]] – articles on history of specific technologies

===History of nuclear technology===
{{Main|Nuclear technology#History}}
* [[Manhattan Project]]
* [[Atomic Age]]
* [[Nuclear testing]]
* [[Nuclear arms race]]

===History of science and technology===
{{Main|History of science and technology}}

{{Div col}}
* [[History of telescopes]]
* [[Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology]]
* [[Timeline of microscope technology]]
* [[Timeline of particle physics technology]]
* [[Timeline of low-temperature technology]]
* [[Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology]]
{{Div col end}}

===History of transport technology===
{{Main|Historic transport}}

* [[Timeline of motor and engine technology]]
* [[Timeline of photography technology]]
* [[Timeline of rocket and missile technology]]
* [[Timeline of communication technology]]

==See also==

===Related history===
* [[History of science]]
* [[History of mathematics]]
* [[History of philosophy]]

===Related disciplines===
{{Div col}}
* [[Timeline of historic inventions]]
* [[List of independent discoveries]]
* [[Critique of technology]]
* [[Technical education]]
* [[Philosophy of technology]]
* [[History of science and technology]] (field of study)
* [[History of ideas]] (field of study)
* [[Technology Dynamics]] (field of study)
* [[Technology]]
* [[Engineering]]
** [[Mechanical engineering]]
* [[Science and technology in Canada]]
{{Div col end}}

===Related subjects===
* [[High technology]]
* [[Simple machine]]
* [[Deindustrialization]]

===Future of science and technology (speculative)===
{{wikia|Future|Futures Wiki}}
{{Div col}}
* [[Emerging technologies]]
* [[Futurology]]
* [[Technological singularity]]
* [[Technocapitalism]]
* [[Technological change]]
* [[Technological determinism]]
* [[Technology forecasting]]
* [[Robotics]]
{{Div col end}}

===People===
* [[List of engineers]] and [[list of inventors]]
* [[Biography]] of [[inventor]]s and [[Exploration|explorers]]
* [[Professional body|Technical societies]]
* [[Technocracy]]
* [[Technology and society]]

===Historiography of science and technology===
* [[Kranzberg's laws of technology]]
* [[Lexikon der gesamten Technik]]
* [[Exploratory engineering]]

===Historians of science and technology===
{{Div col}}
* [[Johann Beckmann]]
* [[I. Bernard Cohen]]
* [[Ruth Schwartz Cowan]]
* [[John L. Heilbron]]
* [[Thomas P. Hughes]]
* [[Daniel Kevles]]
* [[Melvin Kranzberg]]
* [[Thomas Kuhn]]
* [[Dylan Stiddle]]
* [[Lewis Mumford]]
* [[Joseph Needham]]
* [[Abraham Pais]]
* [[George Sarton]]
* [[Charles Singer]]
* [[W. Patrick McCray]]
* [[W. David Lewis]]
* [[Silvio A. Bedini]]
* [[Paul Josephson]]
* [[Harry Lintsen]]
{{Div col end}}

===Journals and periodicals in the history of science and technology===
*''[[History of Technology]]''
*''[[ICON]]''
*''[[Technology and Culture]]''
*''Transactions of the [[Newcomen Society]]''

===Notebooks===
*[[Marx's notebooks on the history of technology]]

===Research institutes===
* [[Bell Labs]]
* [[Max Planck Institute for the History of Science]], Berlin

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Singer, C., Holmyard, E.J., Hall, A. R and Williams, T. I. (eds.), (1954-59 and 1978) <cite>A History of Technology,<cite>, 7 vols., Oxford, Clarendon Press,. (Vols 6 and 7, 1978, ed. T. I. Williams)
*Kranzberg, Melvin and Pursell, Carroll W. Jr., eds. (1967)<cite>Technology in Western Civilization: Technology in the Twentieth Century<cite>  New York: Oxford University Press. 
*Pacey, Arnold, (1974, 2ed 1994),<cite>The Maze of Ingenuity<cite> The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1974, [2ed 1994, cited here]
*Derry, Thomas Kingston and Williams, Trevor I., (1993) <cite>A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900</cite>.  New York: Dover Publications.
*Brush, S. G. (1988). <cite>The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution 1800-1950</cite>. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
*Bunch, Bryan and Hellemans, Alexander, (1993)<cite> The Timetables of Technology,<cite> New York, Simon and Schuster.
* Greenwood, Jeremy (1997) [http://www.econ.rochester.edu/Faculty/GreenwoodPapers/third.pdf ''The Third Industrial Revolution: Technology, Productivity and Income Inequality''] AEI Press.
*[[Manuel de Landa|Landa, Manuel de]], ''[[War in the Age of Intelligent Machines]]'', 2001.
*Olby, R. C. et al., eds. (1996). <cite>Companion to the History of Modern Science,<cite>. New York, Routledge.

==External links==
* [http://www.mpoweruk.com/history.htm Electropaedia on the History of Technology]
* http://www.fptt-pftt.gc.ca/success/century/1900_e.shtml  This is a very good site for looking at Technology in the 1900s (20th century)
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/6-933JThe-Structure-of-Engineering-RevolutionsFall2001/CourseHome/index.htm MIT 6.933J – The Structure of Engineering Revolutions]. From MIT OpenCourseWare, course materials (graduate level) for a course on the history of technology through a [[Thomas Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn-ian]] lens.
*[http://www.revisedhistory.org/civilevents.htm Concept of Civilization Events]. From Jaroslaw Kessler, a chronology of "civilizing events".
*[http://www.etrusia.co.uk/city_tech_1.php Ancient and Medieval City Technology]
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[[Category:Research & Technology]]
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[[Category:Social Studies]]