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===Great names of science in medieval Europe=== '''[[Anthemius of Tralles]]''' (ca. 474 β ca. 534), a professor of geometry and architecture, authored many influential works on mathematics and was one of the architects of the famed [[Hagia Sophia]], the largest building in the world at its time. His works were among the most important source texts in the Arab world and Western Europe for centuries after. '''[[John Philoponus]]''' (ca. 490βca. 570), also known as ''John the Grammarian'', a Byzantine philosopher, launched a revolution in the understanding of physics by critiquing and correcting the earlier works of [[Aristotle]]. In the process he proposed important concepts such as a rudimentary notion of [[inertia]] and the invariant acceleration of falling objects. Although his works were repressed at various times in the Byzantine Empire, because of religious controversy, they would nevertheless become important to the understanding of physics throughout Europe and the Arab world. '''[[Paul of Aegina]]''' (ca. 625βca. 690), considered by some to be the greatest Byzantine surgeon, developed many novel surgical techniques and authored the medical encyclopedia ''[[Medical Compendium in Seven Books]]''. The book on surgery in particular was the definitive treatise in Europe and the Islamic world for hundreds of years. [[Image:Nuremberg Chronicle Venerable Bede.jpg|upright|left|thumb|The Venerable Bede]] '''[[Bede|The Venerable Bede]]''' (ca. 672β735), monk of the monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow who wrote a work ''On the Nature of Things'', several books on the mathematical / astronomical subject of [[Computus#History|computus]], the most influential entitled ''On the Reckoning of Time''. He made original discoveries concerning the nature of the tides and his works on computus became required elements of the training of [[clergy]], and thus greatly influenced early medieval knowledge of the natural world. '''[[Abbas Ibn Firnas]]''' (810 β 887), a [[polymath]] and inventor in [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]], made contributions in a variety of fields and is most known for his contributions to glass-making and aviation. He developed novel ways of manufacturing and using glass. He broke his back at an unsuccessful attempt at flying a primitive hang glider in 875. '''[[Pope Sylvester II]]''' (c. 946β1003), a scholar, teacher, mathematician, and later [[pope]], introduced the [[abacus]] and [[armillary sphere]] from the Islamic world to Western Europe (after the abacus had been lost for centuries following the [[Greco-Roman]] era). He was also responsible in part for the spread of the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] in Western Europe. <!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Albucasis.gif|90px|right|thumb|Abulcasis (Syrian post stamp)]] --> '''[[Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti|Maslamah al-Majriti]]''' (died 1008), a mathematician, astronomer, and chemist in [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]], made novel contributions in many areas, from new techniques for surveying to updating and improving the astronomical tables of [[al-Khwarizmi]] and inventing a process for producing [[mercury oxide]].<ref>''[http://www.muslimheritage.com/day_life/default.cfm?yearlist=1&Oldpage=1&ArticleID=431 Maslama ibn Ahmad Al-Majriti - 1007]'', Muslim Heritage: Muslim Scholars. Retrieved 21 March 2008.</ref> He is most famous, though, for having helped transmit knowledge of mathematics and astronomy to Muslim Spain and Christian Western Europe. '''[[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]]''' (936-1013), a physician and scientist in [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]], is considered to be the father of modern surgery. He wrote numerous medical texts, developed many innovative surgical instruments, and developed a variety of new surgical techniques and practices. His texts were considered the definitive works on surgery in Europe until the Renaissance. '''[[Constantine the African]]''' (c. 1020&β1087), a Christian native of [[Carthage]], is best known for his translating of [[Ancient Greek medicine|Greek]], [[Medicine in ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[w:c:islam:Islamic medicine|Islamic medical]] texts from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] into [[Latin]] while working at the [[Schola Medica Salernitana]] in [[Salerno]], [[Italy]]. Among the works he translated were those of [[Hippocrates]], [[Galen]], [[wikipedia:Hunayn ibn Ishaq|Hunayn ibn Ishaq]], [[wikipedia:Isaac Israeli ben Solomon|Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]], and [[wikipedia:'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi|'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi]]. '''[[AbΕ« IshΔq IbrΔhΔ«m al-ZarqΔlΔ«|Arzachel]]''' (1028β1087), the foremost [[astronomy|astronomer]] of the early second millennium, lived in [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]] and greatly expanded the understanding and accuracy of planetary models and terrestrial measurements used for navigation. He developed key technologies including the [[equatorium]] and universal latitude-independent [[astrolabe]]. '''[[Avempace]]''' (died 1138), a famous physicist from [[Muslim Spain]] who had an important influence on later physicists such as [[Galileo]].<ref>Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (3), p. 375β422 [379].</ref> He was the first to theorize the concept of a [[reaction (physics)|reaction]] force for every force exerted.<ref name=Pines-1964/> [[Image:grosseteste-color.png|left|upright|thumb|Robert Grosseteste]] '''[[Ibn Zuhr|Avenzoar]]''' (1091β1161), from [[Muslim Spain]], was the earliest known [[experiment]]al surgeon,<ref name=Abdel-Halim/> for introducing an [[Scientific method|experimental method]] in [[surgery]], as he was the first to employ [[animal testing]] in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.<ref name=Rabie>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", ''Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333β1339''.</ref> He also performed the earliest [[dissection]]s and postmortem [[autopsies]] on both humans as well as animals.<ref>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref> '''[[Robert Grosseteste]]''' (1168β1253), [[Bishop of Lincoln]], was the central character of the [[England|English]] intellectual movement in the first half of the 13th century and is considered the founder of scientific thought in [[Oxford]]. He had a great interest in the natural world and wrote texts on the mathematical sciences of [[optics]], [[astronomy]] and [[geometry]]. In his commentaries on Aristotle's scientific works, he affirmed that experiments should be used in order to verify a theory, testing its consequences. [[Roger Bacon]] was influenced by his work on optics and astronomy.<ref>A. C. Crombie, ''Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science 1100β1700'', (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971)</ref> [[Image:AlbertusMagnus.jpg|left|upright|thumb|St. Albert the Great]] '''[[Albert the Great]]''' (1193β1280), ''Doctor Universalis'', was one of the most prominent representatives of the philosophical tradition emerging from the [[Dominican Order]]. He is one of the thirty-three [[Saints]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] honored with the title of [[Doctor of the Church]]. He became famous for his vast knowledge and for his defence of the pacific coexistence between science and religion. Albert was an essential figure in introducing Greek and Islamic science into the medieval universities, although not without hesitation with regard to particular Aristotelian theses. In one of his most famous sayings he asserted: "Science does not consist in ratifying what others say, but of searching for the causes of phenomena." [[Thomas Aquinas]] was his most famous pupil. '''[[Jordanus de Nemore]]''' (late 12th, early 13th century) was one of the major pure [[mathematics|mathematicians]] of the Middle Ages. He wrote treatises on [[mechanics]] ("the science of weights"), on basic and advanced [[arithmetic]], on [[algebra]], on [[geometry]], and on the mathematics of [[stereographic projection]]. [[Image:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg|upright|thumb|Roger Bacon]]'''[[Roger Bacon]]''' (1214β94), ''Doctor Admirabilis'', joined the [[Order of Friars Minor|Franciscan Order]] around 1240 where, influenced by Grosseteste, ibn Firnas and others, he dedicated himself to studies where he implemented the observation of nature and experimentation as the foundation of natural knowledge. Bacon was responsible for making the concept of "[[laws of nature]]" widespread, and contributed in such areas as [[mechanics]], [[geography]] and, most of all, optics. The optical research of Grosseteste and Bacon established optics as an area of study at the medieval university and formed the basis for a continuous tradition of research into optics that went all the way up to the beginning of the 17th century and the foundation of modern optics by Kepler.<ref>Lindberg, David C. "Theories of Vision from Al-Kindi to Kepler" University of Chicago Press 1976 pp. 94β187</ref> '''[[Ibn al-Baitar]]''' (died 1248), a botanist and pharmacist in [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]], researched over 1400 types of plants, foods, and drugs and compiled pharmaceutical and medical encyclopedias documenting his research. These were used in the Islamic world and Europe until the 19th century. [[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|thumb|upright|St. Thomas Aquinas]] '''[[Thomas Aquinas]]''' (1227β74), ''Doctor Angelicus'', was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[theologian]] and friar in the [[Dominican Order]]. As his mentor Albert the Great, he is a Catholic Saint and Doctor of the Church. His interests were not only in [[philosophy]]; he was also interested in [[alchemy]], having written an important treatise titled ''Aurora Consurgens''. However, his greatest contribution to the scientific development of the period was having been mostly responsible for the incorporation of [[Aristotelianism]] into the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] tradition, and in particular his ''Commentary on Aristotle's Physics'' was responsible for developing one of the most important innovations in the history of physics, first posited by his mentor Averroes for celestial bodies only, namely the notion of the inertial resistant mass of all bodies universally, subsequently further developed by Kepler and Newton in the 17th century. (See Pierre Duhem's analysis ''The 12th century birth of the notion of mass which advised modern mechanics.'' from his ''Systeme Du Monde'' at <ref>{{cite web|url=http://ftp.colloquium.co.uk/~barrett/void.html |title=Duhem; Le Systeme du monde |publisher=Ftp.colloquium.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-03-28}}</ref>) [[Image:JohnDunsScotus.jpg|thumb|upright|Duns Scotus]] '''[[Duns Scotus|John Duns Scotus]]''' (1266β1308), ''Doctor Subtilis'', was a member of the [[Order of Friars Minor|Franciscan Order]], philosopher and theologian. Emerging from the academic environment of the [[University of Oxford]]. where the presence of Grosseteste and Bacon was still palpable, he had a different view on the relationship between [[reason]] and [[faith]] as that of Thomas Aquinas. For Duns Scotus, the truths of faith could not be comprehended through the use of reason. Philosophy, hence, should not be a servant to theology, but act independently. He was the mentor of one of the greatest names of philosophy in the Middle Ages: [[William of Ockham]]. '''[[William of Ockham]]''' (1285β1350), ''Doctor Invincibilis'', was an [[England|English]] [[Order of Friars Minor|Franciscan]] friar, philosopher, [[logic]]ian and theologian. Ockham defended the principle of [[parsimony]], which could already be seen in the works of his mentor Duns Scotus. His principle later became known as [[Occam's Razor]] and states that if there are various equally valid explanations for a fact, then the simplest one should be chosen. This became a foundation of what would come to be known as the [[scientific method]] and one of the pillars of [[reductionism]] in science. Ockham probably died of the [[Black Plague]]. [[Jean Buridan]] and [[Nicole Oresme]] were his followers. '''[[Jean Buridan]]''' (1300β58) was a [[France|French]] philosopher and priest. Although he was one of the most famous and influent philosophers of the late Middle Ages, his work today is not renowned by people other than philosophers and historians. One of his most significant contributions to science was the development of the [[Impetus|theory of Impetus]], that explained the movement of projectiles and objects in [[free-fall]]. This theory gave way to the [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamics]] of [[Galileo Galilei]] and for [[Isaac Newton]]'s famous principle of [[Inertia]]. [[Image:Oresme-small.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Nicole Oresme]] '''[[Nicole Oresme]]''' (c. 1323β82) was an intellectual genius and perhaps the most original thinker of the 14th century. A theologian and [[bishop of Lisieux]], he was one of the principal propagators of the modern sciences. Notwithstanding his strictly scientific contributions, Oresme strongly opposed [[astrology]] and speculated about the possibility of [[extraterrestrial life]]. He was the last great European intellectual to live before the [[Black Plague]], an event that had a very negative impact in the intellectual life of the ending period of the Middle Ages.
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